Loading ...Aristotle and Islamic Philosophy
By Luke McMahan/ Arab America Contributing Writer
Ancient Greek philosophy, particularly that of Aristotle, was profoundly influential in the development of Islamic philosophy during the Abbasid Caliphate. Early translations and commentaries in Arabic facilitated the incorporation of reason and Greek thought into the writings of prominent Muslim thinkers such as Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd. However, this new discipline faced widespread criticism for its apparent departure from divine revelation in favor of rationality.
Translation and the Rise of Islamic Philosophy
Translations of Greek philosophy first appeared in the region as early as the 4th century, primarily in the Syriac language. These translations were preserved within small Christian communities following the Arab conquest of Syria. The first Arabic translations, however, would emerge later, in the early years of the Abbasid Caliphate. Initiated under Al-Mansur and expanded by Al-Mamun, interest in Greek philosophy blossomed in the Islamic world. A group of philosophers, led by Al-Kindi and later Ibn Ishaq, began translating and commenting on Greek works. Simultaneously, the Mu’tazilites, a group of Islamic political neutralists caught in the sectarian divide over Ali’s position as caliph following Uthman’s murder, began gaining influence. They were the first major group to embrace Greek philosophy seriously. Caliph Al-Mamun became an adherent of this group and began imposing their doctrines throughout the empire while expanding Greek translation and scientific research.
Aristotelian Thought
Aristotle significantly influenced philosophers such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd, some of the greatest thinkers of this period. They either wrote commentaries or translations of his work, especially Metaphysics, and incorporated his ideas into their own thoughts. To them, Aristotle was the first and greatest philosopher. His rationally derived ideas served as a benchmark for Islamic thinkers to test their own, ensuring that their Islamic ideas were also rationally sound. This fusion of reason, particularly the traditions of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism, and religion became known as “falsafa” (فلسفة). In fact, in Muslim society, Aristotle was frequently referred to as “al-mu’allim al-awal” (المعلّم الاوّل) or the “first teacher.”
Following Al-Kindi’s early translation efforts, Al-Farabi began incorporating Greek thought into Sufism, earning him the title “the second teacher” after Aristotle. Ibn Sina further expanded this project as both a philosopher and physician. Finally, Ibn Rushd sought to reestablish the original teachings of Aristotle after the new directions taken by earlier philosophers. He also aimed to restore philosophy as a discipline following the heavy criticisms it had received. Though less famous in the Arab world, his work would be widely studied in Europe.
Al-Ghazali
Suspicion regarding the acceptability of Aristotle and his contemporaries in the canon of Islamic philosophy persisted throughout this time. Al-Ghazali, the most famous representative of this sentiment, leveled several rounds of criticism at his predecessors. He then rationally refuted twenty of the Islamic philosophers’ beliefs, such as Ibn Sina’s position on the eternity of the earth. His aim was to demonstrate that their belief in rational supremacy was misguided, as their accepted arguments were not themselves rationally sound. Al-Ghazali was also concerned with the potential political dangers of philosophy, fearing it could lead many to disregard their religion and the government that supported it. He identified three of Ibn Sina’s contentions as especially harmful and declared anyone following these teachings to be an unbeliever.
However, Al-Ghazali did not outright reject Islamic philosophy and its influences. In later works, he wrote that there is indeed a place for reason, so long as it does not contradict three core Islamic beliefs: tawhid (the oneness of God), the Prophet’s revelations, and Quranic eschatology (life after death). Any other rational argument is acceptable and should be pursued as long as it is backed by solid proof. If a conflict arises between a clearly delineated rational argument and an Islamic belief because neither can be false, the individual must seek a deeper symbolic meaning in the latter until both statements coexist.
Ibn Taymiyyah
Another influential critic, Ibn Taymiyyah, whose texts were important in the foundation of the Salafi movement, went even further than Al-Ghazali in arguing that there can be no conflict between reason and belief. He believed that placing the two on the same level severely overstated the position of the former compared to the might of divine revelation. In his view, Al-Ghazali’s argument that revelation must become symbolic or allegorical to accommodate reason was another example of this misapprehension. Thus, Ibn Taymiyyah argued that Al-Ghazali fell victim to the same misguided belief in rational supremacy that he accused the philosophers of.
Sources:
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Ibn Taymiyya
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Arabic and Islamic Metaphysics
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Arabic and Islamic Greek Thought
Muslim Philosophy: The Islamic Philosophy
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Al-Ghazali
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