Loading ...9/11 as a Turning Point in El Rassi’s Memoir
By Arwa Almasaari / Arab America Contributing Writer
The tragic events of September 11, 2001, led to a rise in Islamophobia and anti-Arab racism in the U.S. However, it is important to recognize that these attacks were not the beginning but rather one of several turning points in the history of discrimination against Arabs and Muslims. Toufic El Rassi’s graphic memoir, Arab in America, serves as a testament to the enduring racism faced by men of Arab descent long before September 11.
El Rassi’s Background
El Rassi, born in Beirut in 1978 to an Egyptian mother and Lebanese father, immigrated to the U.S. as a toddler. Raised in a predominantly white, Christian neighborhood, he became aware of his ethnic minority status in eighth grade and grew more connected to his Arab heritage in college. Confronting anti-Arab racism and contesting U.S. foreign policy have deeply shaped his writings and art.
El Rassi’s middle-class background and Christian upbringing initially afforded him a degree of proximity to whiteness, particularly through his circle of white friends. However, this proximity came at a cost, as he encountered anti-Arab racism from classmates and teachers who were unaware of his Arab heritage. The first Gulf War heightened his awareness of the disparity between his views and those of his peers on U.S. foreign policy, deepening his sense of alienation.
Post-9/11 Surveillance and Discrimination
In the aftermath of September 11, these experiences became even more pronounced. Binary thinking, such as the “us or them” mentality, further alienated Arab Americans (Jamal 321). The belief that Arabs were enemies intensified, fueled by Bush Administration measures like the USA PATRIOT Act and Operation TIPS, which led to widespread arrests and secret detentions (Najjar 86). This pattern of surveillance continues a history of U.S. government discrimination dating back to Nixon’s 1970s Operation Boulder, which targeted Arab individuals and resulted in the investigation of 150,000 Arabs and widespread violations of constitutional rights (Naber 34; Wancewicz 155).
Media Representation and Stereotypes
Moreover, media representations have long played a role in reinforcing negative stereotypes. Long before September 11, U.S. media depicted Arab men through contradictory stereotypes: emasculated as orientals and hyper-masculinized in terms of sexuality and violence (Bosch 37). Jack Shaheen notes that Hollywood often portrays them as “brute murderers, sleazy rapists, religious fanatics, oil-rich dimwits, and abusers of women” (2). Simultaneously, colonialist orientalist rhetoric presents Arab men as effeminate, “irrational, depraved (fallen), [and] childlike” (Orientalism 40, 285). These conflicting images contribute to the portrayal of Arab men as two-faced monsters—both effeminate and hypermasculine.
The War on Terror and Its Effects
In this climate, the War on Terror has further exacerbated these issues, as it is often perceived as a war against Islam. This has deepened the marginalization of Muslim Arab Americans, who are increasingly viewed as “un-American” (Jamal 321). While these barriers are more pronounced for Arab Muslims, they also affect Arab Christians (Jamal 322). This ambiguity creates an “enemy within,” where any markers of an Arab, Muslim, or Middle Eastern background contribute to the perception of being a threat.
El Rassi’s Narrative and Its Impact
El Rassi’s graphic memoir reflects these broader trends. His work portrays the frustrations of being an Arab American man in the U.S. In a climate of heightened fear, Arab in America plays a vital role in humanizing a community under suspicion. His work addresses gendered orientalism and the portrayal of Arab men as terrorists, illustrating how these stereotypes lead to unjust imprisonment and deportation.
Additionally, El Rassi’s work highlights how international politics influence perceptions of Arab Americans. For instance, during the 1973 oil crisis, one of El Rassi’s high school teachers displayed a cartoon showing an American soldier intimidating an Arab man into giving up his oil. In another instance, when discussing the Battle of Tours, a teacher laughingly remarked that if “Moslems” had won, “we’d all be Arabs! Can you imagine?”
El Rassi also addresses the dual struggles of gendered orientalism and the portrayal of Arab men as terrorists, highlighting how men are disproportionately perceived as threats. In one instance, El Rassi mocks racial profiling by depicting himself sitting next to a bearded man in a turban reading a Hindi newspaper. While El Rassi’s ethnicity is ignored, the Sikh man is verbally attacked by young men who call him “Osama” and accuse him of planning to “blow us up” (83–4).
Graphic novels like El Rassi’s are powerful tools for conveying political messages. By drawing himself and sharing his personal story, El Rassi reclaims his voice and visual representation. His narrative shows a profound transformation—from a young man who hides his ethnic background to someone who embraces his Arab heritage and speaks out against injustices toward Arabs and Arab Americans.
The Need for Greater Representation
The key takeaway is that 9/11 exacerbated pre-existing biases against Arabs and Muslims. Greater representation of Arabs in literature for both children and adults is essential to counter these stereotypes and promote understanding.
Bibliography:
Almasaari, Arwa. From Scriptures to Stereotypes: Arab Americans Writing Self. 2024. University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, https://dc.uwm.edu/etd/3447.
Bosch-Vilarrubias, Marta. Post-9/11 Representations of Arab Men by Arab American Women Writers: Affirmation and Resistance. Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 2016.
El Rassi, Toufic. Arab in America. Last Gasp, 2007.
Jamal, Amaney A. “Conclusion: Arab American Racialization.” Race and Arab Americans before and after 9/11: From Invisible Citizens to Visible Subjects., edited by Nadine Christine Naber and Jamal, Amaney A., Syracuse University Press, 2008, pp. 318–23.
Naber, Nadine. “The Rules of Forced Engagement: Race, Gender, and the Culture of Fear among Arab Immigrants in San Francisco Post-9/11.” Cultural Dynamics, vol. 18, no. 3, Nov. 2006, pp. 235–67. SAGE Journals, https://doi.org/10.1177/0921374006071614.
Najjar, Michael Malek. Arab American Drama, Film and Performance: A Critical Study, 1908 to the Present. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers, 2015.
Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1994.
Shaheen, Jack G. Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People. Olive Branch Press, 2009.
Wancewicz, Molly. “Operation Boulder and Its Effects on Arab-American Communities of the 1970’s.” Gettysburg Social Sciences Review, vol. 2, no. 2, Dec. 2018, https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/gssr/vol2/iss2/5.
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